The United Arab Emirates is a federation of seven emirates governed under a constitution adopted in 1971 and made permanent in 1996. Political authority is distributed between the federal state and the individual emirates in a way that has no exact parallel in the region.
The Federal Supreme Council
The highest constitutional authority is the Federal Supreme Council, composed of the rulers of the seven emirates. It formulates general policy, ratifies federal laws and treaties, and elects the President and Vice-President from among its members for renewable five-year terms. In practice, Abu Dhabi and Dubai hold decisive weight, and the presidency has been held by the ruler of Abu Dhabi since 1971 with the ruler of Dubai serving as Vice-President and Prime Minister.
The presidency and the cabinet
The President is both head of state and head of the armed forces. The Council of Ministers, appointed by the President and chaired by the Prime Minister, is the executive arm: it drafts and administers federal legislation across foreign affairs, defence, interior, education, health, economy, culture and energy.
Individual emirates retain control of their own natural resources and of municipal government. Abu Dhabi, Dubai and Sharjah each have an executive council and a ruler's court; each emirate operates its own police force, though they coordinate closely, and each maintains its own planning and licensing regimes, which is why business rules can differ noticeably between emirates.
The Federal National Council
The Federal National Council has forty members drawn proportionally from the emirates. Half are appointed by the rulers and half are elected through electoral colleges that have been progressively expanded. It reviews and can amend proposed federal legislation, debates policy and summons ministers; it is a consultative and review body rather than a sovereign legislature.
Judiciary
Each emirate has courts of first instance and appeal, and there is a federal supreme court. Two financial free zones — the Dubai International Financial Centre and Abu Dhabi Global Market — operate their own English-language civil and commercial courts, which has made the country an established venue for regional arbitration and financial contracts.
Rule of law and human rights
The constitution guarantees equality before the law, personal liberty and freedom of religious worship. International organisations and non-governmental bodies have documented concerns in areas including freedom of expression, the treatment of migrant workers and the use of the death penalty; the country has replied with legislative reform, including the 2018 long-term residence programme, the wages protection system and adjustments to the labour law governing termination and working hours.
Foreign policy
Foreign policy is federal. The Emirates maintains a large diplomatic network, is a member of the United Nations, the Gulf Cooperation Council, the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and has contributed troops and humanitarian support to a number of regional operations. Relations with Jordan are long-standing and are covered in a dedicated article.